Standard English Conventions

Recognizing the Question Type

What changes in the choices	Likely question type
Commas, semicolons, periods, colons, or dashes	Boundaries or punctuation
Apostrophes or singular and plural forms	Possessives and plurals
Verb forms	Subject-verb agreement or verb tense
Pronouns	Pronoun agreement or clarity
Placement of a descriptive phrase	Modifiers
Wording length or repeated ideas	Concision and redundancy

Boundaries

Complete Sentences and Clauses

An independent clause contains a subject, a finite verb, and a complete thought:

The researchers analyzed the samples.

A dependent clause cannot stand alone:

Although the researchers analyzed the samples

Words such as although, because, while, when, if, since, unless, and whereas (AWUBIS words) often create dependent clauses.

The easiest test is to read the clause by itself. If it leaves you waiting for the rest(e.g. “Although the researchers analyzed the samples” … what happened after?) it is a dependent clause.

Example. During the nineteenth century, astronomer Maria Mitchell recorded the positions of celestial objects with remarkable precision. Because the instruments available to her, though advanced for the period, _____ Which choice completes the text so that it conforms to the conventions of Standard English?

A. imposed limits on what she could observe.
B. imposed limits on what she could observe, later astronomers reexamined some of her measurements with newer technology.
C. imposing limits on what she could observe, later astronomers reexamined some of her measurements with newer technology.
D. had imposed limits on what she could observe and newer technology.

B is correct because because makes the first clause dependent, and the comma is followed by the independent clause “later astronomers reexamined some of her measurements with newer technology.” A leaves only a dependent clause. C removes the finite verb from the dependent clause, and D never supplies an independent clause to complete the sentence.

Joining Complete Sentences

If both sides are complete sentences, join them with:

a period,
a semicolon,
a comma followed by a coordinating conjunction: for, and, nor, but, or, yet, or so.

Example. Which choice correctly joins the two complete sentences “The experiment failed” and “The researchers repeated it” while showing that the second event resulted from the first?

A. The experiment failed, the researchers repeated it.
B. The experiment failed; consequently, the researchers repeated it.
C. The experiment failed, however the researchers repeated it.
D. The experiment failed because, the researchers repeated it.

B is correct because the semicolon joins two independent clauses, and consequently expresses the result relationship. A is a comma splice. C uses however without a valid boundary and signals contrast rather than result. D places an unnecessary comma after the subordinating conjunction because.

Example. Paleoclimatologist Nia Okafor cautions that a single sediment core cannot establish a region-wide drought pattern _____ samples from several distant lakes, however, reveal the same abrupt decline in moisture during the period. Which choice completes the text so that it conforms to the conventions of Standard English?

A. , samples
B.; samples
C. although samples
D. and, samples

B is correct because the text contains two independent clauses, so a semicolon can separate them; however then functions within the second clause. A creates a comma splice. C makes the material after the blank dependent, leaving the first independent clause improperly attached without punctuation. D incorrectly places a comma after the coordinating conjunction.

Colons

Use a colon after a complete sentence to introduce a list, explanation, example, or clarification.

The researchers examined three variables: temperature, pressure, and humidity.

Everything before the colon must be able to stand alone. “The variables included” is incomplete because included still needs an object, so it should not be followed immediately by a colon.

Example. The newly translated inventory reveals a pattern that earlier accounts of the workshop had overlooked _____ apprentices, not master artisans, were responsible for producing most of its undecorated pottery. Which choice completes the text so that it conforms to the conventions of Standard English?

A. , namely,
B.; namely
C.: namely,
D. namely:

C is correct because the complete clause before the blank introduces a clarification, so a colon is appropriate; namely is then followed by a comma. A cannot join the two independent clauses with commas alone. B could separate the clauses, but namely requires a comma after it. D lacks punctuation before namely and incorrectly places the colon after it.

Lists

Use commas to separate three or more simple items in a series:

The researchers measured temperature, pressure, and humidity.

The commas show where one measured variable ends and the next begins. These notes use the serial comma before and for clarity.

If one or more list items already contain commas, use semicolons between the main items:

The conference included speakers from Lima, Peru; Accra, Ghana; and Kyoto, Japan.

The semicolons separate the three city-country pairs, while the commas stay inside each pair.

Keep every item grammatically parallel. A list of nouns should remain a list of nouns, and a list of verb phrases should remain a list of verb phrases.

Use a colon to introduce a list only when the words before the colon form a complete sentence:

The survey measured three atmospheric conditions: temperature, pressure, and humidity.

Do not place a colon directly after a verb or preposition that already introduces the list:

The survey measured temperature, pressure, and humidity.

Example. The archive contains correspondence from Valparaíso, Chile _____ Kingston, Jamaica _____ and Bristol, England. Which choice completes the text so that it conforms to the conventions of Standard English?

A. , / ,
B.; / ;
C.: / ,
D.; / ,

B is correct because each list item already contains an internal comma separating a city from its country, so semicolons must separate the three main items. A makes the levels of the list difficult to distinguish. C incorrectly places a colon after an incomplete introduction, and D separates equivalent list items with inconsistent punctuation.

Transitions Between Sentences

A transition such as however does not join two sentences with commas. Use:

The substance is inexpensive; however, it is difficult to manufacture.

or:

The substance is inexpensive. However, it is difficult to manufacture.

Introductory and Non-essential Information

An introductory dependent clause begins a sentence with a subject and verb but cannot stand alone because it starts with a subordinating word such as although, because, when, if, or while. It sets up a condition, cause, contrast, time, or other relationship that the following independent clause completes.

Place a comma after an introductory dependent clause or phrase:

Although the results were unexpected, the researchers accepted them.

After analyzing the samples, the researchers published their findings.

In the first sentence, “Although the results were unexpected” has a subject and verb, but although leaves the thought unfinished. The comma marks the end of that introductory dependent clause. In the second sentence, “After analyzing the samples” is an introductory phrase rather than a clause because it has no finite verb; it still receives a comma.

Nonessential information can be removed without changing the sentence’s core identity or grammatical structure. The most common type is information surrounded with two commas or two em dashes:

Dr. Lee, a marine biologist, conducted the study.

Dr. Lee—a marine biologist—conducted the study.

Both versions identify Dr. Lee before adding the removable description a marine biologist. Commas create a neutral interruption; em dashes create a stronger break. Do not use spaced hyphens in place of em dashes.

Essential information identifies which person or thing the sentence means and does not receive surrounding commas:

Researchers who study marine ecosystems attended the conference.

The clause who study marine ecosystems identifies which researchers attended, so it is essential and receives no commas.

Nonessential information can take several forms:

Appositive: “Dr. Lee, a marine biologist, conducted the study.”
Relative clause: “The blue whale, which is the largest living animal, is a mammal.”
Participial phrase: “The samples, collected during winter, contained little pollen.”
Prepositional phrase: “The oldest sample, from the northern site, contained charcoal.”

Prepositional phrases beginning with words such as of, from, with, or in are not automatically nonessential. Ask whether the phrase identifies the noun. In “the collection of letters is valuable,” the of phrase tells what kind of collection is meant and should not be separated by commas. In “the collection, with several letters missing, is still valuable,” the with phrase adds removable information and takes paired commas.

Example. Marine biologist Ayana Ruiz’s newest paper _____ a synthesis of twelve years of reef surveys _____ argues that the apparent recovery of one coral species masks declines among several others. Which choice completes the text so that it conforms to the conventions of Standard English?

A. , a synthesis of twelve years of reef surveys,
B. a synthesis of twelve years of reef surveys,
C. , a synthesis of twelve years of reef surveys
D.: a synthesis of twelve years of reef surveys,

A is correct because the phrase renames paper and can be removed without changing the core sentence, “Ayana Ruiz’s newest paper argues.” The nonessential phrase therefore needs matching commas. B and C provide only one boundary, while D places a colon between the subject and its verb.

Do not place a comma between a subject and its verb or between a verb and its object:

The results of the long experiment were surprising.

The researchers examined the results.

A comma also should not be inserted merely because a preposition or the word that appears nearby:

The samples from the coastal site were analyzed.

The researchers concluded that the change was significant.

The rule is structural: add a comma only when a complete punctuation rule requires one. A comma before a pronoun such as it, he, she, or they often creates a comma splice when that pronoun begins a new independent clause.

Strategies to solve punctuation problems

Form, Structure, and Sense

Apostrophes

Apostrophes indicate possession, not ordinary plurals:

singular possession: the scientist’s theory,
plural possession: the scientists’ theories,
irregular plural possession: the children’s books.

Its means belonging to it; it’s means it is or it has. Possessive pronouns such as its, yours, hers, ours, and theirs do not use apostrophes.

When two nouns appear together, determine their relationship before placing an apostrophe. If the first noun owns or describes the second, the possessive marker usually belongs on the first noun:

the researchers’ findings

Here, researchers is plural, and the findings belong to those researchers, so the apostrophe follows the plural -s.

Do not add an apostrophe to a noun merely because it is plural.

Example. The two laboratories compared their _____ analyses of the newly recovered _____ pigments. Which choice completes the text so that it conforms to the conventions of Standard English?

A. conservator’s / mural’s
B. conservators / murals
C. conservators’ / mural’s
D. conservators’ / murals’

C is correct. Each laboratory has multiple conservators whose analyses are being compared, so the plural possessive conservators’ is required. The pigments belong to one newly recovered mural, so the singular possessive mural’s is required. A incorrectly makes conservator singular, B omits both possessive apostrophes, and D incorrectly makes murals plural.

Subject-Verb Agreement

For subject-verb agreement, find the true subject and ignore intervening phrases:

The collection of paintings is valuable.

The paintings in the collection are valuable.

In the first sentence, the subject is the singular noun collection, so the verb is is; the plural noun paintings is inside an of phrase. In the second, paintings is the plural subject, so the verb is are; in the collection merely describes the paintings.

Subjects such as each, every, either, neither, anyone, everyone, someone, nobody, and one usually take singular verbs.

Subjects joined by and are generally plural. With or and nor, the verb agrees with the closer subject:

Neither the students nor the teacher is attending.

Neither the teacher nor the students are attending.

In the first sentence, the closer subject teacher is singular, so is agrees with it. In the second, the closer subject students is plural, so are agrees with it.

Another potentially confusing distinction is a number of versus the number of. A number of means several and takes a plural verb. The number of refers to one numerical total and takes a singular verb.

A number of researchers are participating.

The number of researchers is increasing.

The first sentence means “Several researchers are participating,” so are is correct. The second discusses one total—the number—so is is correct.

In a sentence beginning with there is or there are, the subject follows the verb:

There is one reason.

There are several reasons.

The true subjects follow the verbs: singular one reason requires is, while plural several reasons requires are.

When determining subject-verb agreement, temporarily remove nonessential information. SAT questions may place a plural noun near a singular subject, or a singular noun near a plural subject, to distract from the word that actually controls the verb. Nonessential information never determines subject-verb agreement.

Example. The collection of letters from the expedition, including several pages that describe an uncharted island, _____ stored in the university archive. Which choice completes the text so that it conforms to the conventions of Standard English?

A. are
B. were
C. is
D. have been

C is correct because the subject is the singular noun collection. The plural nouns letters and pages occur in modifying phrases and do not control the verb. A, B, and D are plural verb forms and therefore do not agree with the subject.

Example. Neither the detailed maps prepared by the surveyors nor the diary kept by the expedition’s leader _____ why the group abandoned its original route. Which choice completes the text so that it conforms to the conventions of Standard English?

A. explain
B. explains
C. have explained
D. are explaining

B is correct. With subjects joined by neither…nor, the verb agrees with the closer subject, diary, which is singular. A, C, and D are plural forms attracted by the more distant noun maps, but that noun does not control the verb here.

Verb Tense and Form

A finite verb changes for tense or agreement and can serve as the main verb of a clause: researchers analyze, a researcher analyzes, or researchers analyzed. Every independent clause needs at least one finite verb.

An infinitive usually consists of to plus the base form of a verb, as in to analyze. Infinitives can act as nouns, adjectives, or adverbs, but they do not by themselves provide the finite verb a sentence needs:

The researchers hope to analyze the samples.

Here, hope is the finite verb because it agrees with researchers and establishes present tense. To analyze is an infinitive explaining what they hope to do.

When choosing between forms, first ask whether the blank must supply the clause’s main verb. If the clause has no other finite verb, choose a tense-bearing form. If the blank follows a verb such as hope, plan, aim, or seek, an infinitive may complete that verb’s meaning.

Generally, when solving for verb tense, prefer the simplest form that accurately expresses the timeline. Use simple present for general facts and ideas discussed in a text, and simple past for completed past actions. The present perfect (has or have plus a past participle) is used for an action that began in the past and continues or remains relevant now, usually without a specific finished time:

Researchers have studied the species for decades.

The present perfect have studied is correct because the research began in the past and continues into the present; for decades names a duration rather than a finished past time.

Use past perfect for the earlier of two past actions when the sequence needs clarification:

By the time the article appeared, the researchers had completed the study.

The past perfect had completed marks completion as earlier than the later past event appeared.

Always remember to stay consistent with verb tense, especially when comparing present vs. past.

After a modal such as can, may, must, should, will, or would, use the base form of the verb. After to, generally use the base form; after a preposition, use a noun or gerund.

When a modal refers to a past possibility or obligation, use have, never of:

The researchers might have overlooked the pattern.

The samples should have been refrigerated.

In both sentences, a modal (might or should) is followed by have to refer to the past. Might of and should of are never standard constructions.

Make sure every sentence has a finite verb:

The scientist conducting the experiment discovered an error.

The finite verb discovered completes the sentence. Conducting is a participle that modifies scientist; “The scientist conducting the experiment” alone is a fragment because it contains no finite verb.

Example. By the time conservators first examined the mural in 1998, moisture _____ several layers of pigment; since then, a climate-control system has prevented further damage. Which choice completes the text so that it conforms to the conventions of Standard English?

A. penetrates
B. has penetrated
C. had penetrated
D. would penetrate

C is correct because the penetration occurred before another past event—the conservators’ 1998 examination—so the past perfect had penetrated makes the sequence clear. A shifts to the present, B improperly connects the action to the present despite the explicit past reference point, and D places the penetration after the examination.

Pronouns

A pronoun must agree with its antecedent and refer clearly to one person or thing. Always remember that he, she, and it usually refer to singular nouns while they, us, and we normally refer to plural nouns:

The organization revised its policy.

The organizations revised their policies.

In the first sentence, singular organization matches singular its. In the second, plural organizations matches plural their.

There are important exceptions and special cases:

Singular they can refer to one person whose gender is unknown, irrelevant, or described with they: “Each participant submitted their response.”
You can refer to one person or multiple people.
Collective nouns such as team, committee, and family are usually singular in American English when the group acts as one unit: “The committee issued its report.”
Indefinite pronouns such as everyone, someone, either, and neither are grammatically singular: “Everyone has a ticket.”

The SAT tests clarity and agreement, not a blanket ban on singular they. Make sure the reader can identify the antecedent without confusion.

Use subject pronouns for subjects and object pronouns for objects. Remove the other person to test the form:

The teacher praised Maya and me.

The teacher praised me.

The pronoun is an object of praised, so the object form me is correct. Removing Maya and makes the case easier to hear: “The teacher praised me,” not “The teacher praised I.” Use the same test for subjects: “Maya and I presented” becomes “I presented,” not “Me presented.”

For who and whom, substitute he and him: he corresponds to who, while him corresponds to whom.

Use relative pronouns according to what they refer to:

who or whom for people,
which for things,
where for places.

Use who when the pronoun performs the action and whom when it receives the action or follows a preposition. The substitution test is useful: he corresponds to who, and him corresponds to whom.

Example. The fellowship committee interviewed four engineers, each of _____ had designed water systems for remote communities. Which choice completes the text so that it conforms to the conventions of Standard English?

A. who
B. whom
C. they
D. them

B is correct because the pronoun follows the preposition of and functions as its object. The substitution test gives “of him,” not “of he,” so whom is required. A uses the subject form, while C and D cannot introduce the relative clause each of _____ had designed.

Modifiers

A modifier is a word, phrase, or clause that describes another part of a sentence. Modifiers should appear close to what they describe so that their meaning is clear.

A dangling modifier has no logical word to modify in the sentence. For example, “Walking through the laboratory, an unusual sample caught the researcher’s attention” makes an unusual sample appear to be walking.

A misplaced modifier has a possible target but sits next to the wrong one. “The researcher nearly analyzed every sample” means the researcher almost performed the analysis but did not; “The researcher analyzed nearly every sample” means most, but not all, samples were analyzed.

To avoid dangling modifiers, always remember to immediately answer the “question” posed by the modifier:

Walking through the laboratory, the researcher noticed an unusual sample.

The introductory phrase asks, “Who was walking?” The noun immediately after the comma—the researcher—answers that question and logically performs the action.

Example. Using pollen preserved in lake sediment, _____ Which choice completes the text so that the sentence has a logical modifier?

A. the region’s vegetation from 8,000 years ago was reconstructed by ecologists.
B. ecologists reconstructed the region’s vegetation from 8,000 years ago.
C. a reconstruction by ecologists revealed the region’s vegetation 8,000 years ago.
D. lake sediment allowed the region’s vegetation from 8,000 years ago to be reconstructed by ecologists.

B is correct because ecologists are the people who used the preserved pollen, and the noun immediately after the introductory phrase must name whoever performed that action. In A, vegetation illogically appears to use the pollen. In C, a reconstruction appears to use it. In D, lake sediment appears to use pollen even though the pollen is contained in the sediment.

Parallelism and Comparisons

Items in a series or comparison should use the same grammatical form:

The program teaches students to analyze data, interpret results, and present conclusions.

The three items are parallel infinitive phrases sharing the word to: to analyze, to interpret, and to present. Do not mix forms such as to analyze, interpreting, and a presentation of.

Parallelism applies to:

Lists: nouns with nouns, gerunds with gerunds, and infinitives with infinitives.
Paired structures: match the material after both…and, either…or, neither…nor, and not only…but also.
Comparisons: compare equivalent people, objects, actions, or qualities.
Verb sequences: use matching tense and voice when actions occur in the same timeframe and play the same role.

Matching verb tense does not mean every verb in a sentence must be identical. A tense change is correct when the timeline changes: “The team completed the trial and now analyzes the results.” If both actions happened in the past, parallel tense is clearer: “The team completed the trial and analyzed the results.”

Keep structures parallel after both…and, either…or, neither…nor, and not only…but also.

Compare logically equivalent things:

The population of California is larger than that of Nevada.

The phrase that of stands for the population of, so the sentence compares one population with another. Without that of, it would illogically compare California’s population with the state of Nevada.

Example. The new archive allows researchers not only to compare early drafts with published poems _____ Which choice completes the text so that it conforms to the conventions of Standard English?

A. but also tracing how editors shaped the poems’ final forms.
B. but also to trace how editors shaped the poems’ final forms.
C. and also the editorial shaping of the poems’ final forms.
D. but also how editors shaped the poems’ final forms could be traced.

B is correct because it preserves the parallel structure not only to compare…but also to trace. A shifts from an infinitive to a gerund. C does not correctly complete the paired construction not only…but also, and D changes from an active infinitive to a full passive clause.

Simplifying Sentences

Long SAT sentences often hide a simple grammatical structure inside names, prepositional phrases, appositives, and other modifiers. Temporarily removing those additions can reveal the subject, finite verb, clause boundary, or pronoun antecedent being tested.

Consider this sentence:

The collection of field recordings, including several tapes recovered from a damaged archive, is available online.

Temporarily remove the interrupting phrase and bracket the of phrase:

The collection [of field recordings] is available online.

The simplified sentence makes the singular subject-verb pair collection is easy to see. The plural nouns recordings and tapes do not control the verb.

For clause-boundary questions, reduce each side of the blank separately:

Although the initial measurements from the coastal stations were inconsistent, the researchers recalibrated the instruments.

The core structure is “Although measurements were inconsistent, researchers recalibrated.” The word although makes the first clause dependent, while the second clause can stand alone.

Final Grammar Checklist

Frequently Confused Words

Word	Meaning
affect	usually a verb meaning influence
effect	usually a noun meaning result
than	comparison
then	time or result
fewer	countable items
less	uncountable quantity
number	countable items
amount	uncountable quantity
imply	the speaker suggests
infer	the reader concludes
accept	receive
except	exclude
its	possessive
it’s	it is or it has
whose	possessive
who’s	who is or who has